Abolitionist - A person who fought to end slavery and to give rights to freedmen.
Absolutism - A government in which a ruler's power is unlimited.
Adams, Abigail - Wife of the second President of the United States; known for her elegant letters and influence on her husband's Presidency.
Adams, John - Born October 30, 1735 in Braintree, Mass., Adams was a lawyer and a Federalist who served as vice President under George Washington. He became President in 1797 and was the first resident of the White House. During his term, he fortified the Navy to avoid hostilities with the French who were at war with Britain. He was known as the "Atlas of Independence." Adams died in the town where he was born on July 4, 1826, the same day as Thomas Jefferson.
Adams, John Quincy - The son of the second President of the United States, John Adams, was born in Braintree, Mass on July 11, 1767. He was a prominent lawyer and became a senator on the Federalist ticket in 1803. His disagreements with others in the Federalist Party led him to resign and he essentially became President in 1825 with no political affiliation. Adams accomplished more as a state representative after his Presidency than he did as President. He was called "Old Man Eloquent." He died in Washington DC, February 23, 1848.
Adams, Samuel - Former governor of Massachusetts and signer of the Declaration of Independence, he was a major participant in the American Revolution and the Boston Tea Party. He was very much opposed to British rule in America.
Agriculture - Practice of cultivating soil, producing crops, and raising and selling livestock and resulting products.
Albany Plan of Union - July 10, 1754 - A proposed union of several colonies (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina) for their mutual defense and for creating more English settlements in America.
Alien and Sedition Acts - Passed in 1798 to control criticism of the federal government. The acts lengthened the period before an immigrant could obtain citizenship, gave the President power to deport dangerous aliens, and allowed prosecution of people who wrote "false, scandalous and malicious" propaganda against the U.S. government.
Anti-semitism - Hostility or discrimination against people of Jewish heritage.
Antietam, Battle of - Fought on September 17, 1862 in Maryland, this battle was considered the "bloodiest day of the Civil War." The South was led by General Lee, who commanded 30,000 troops and General McClellan led the North with 60,000 troops. In the days leading up to the war, each army knew that the other was in the area. At daybreak on the 17th, the first shots rang out. There were more casualties on this day than on any other day of the Civil War. Neither side gained much ground, and it was considered a failure for Lee. Because of the outcome of this battle, Great Britain postponed its decision to recognize the Federal government.
Archeology - The study of the objects left behind from past cultures and peoples.
Amistad Case - Portuguese slave traders illegally abducted a large group of Africans from Sierra Leone and shipped them to Havana, Cuba in 1839. At this time there were treaties banning further slave exportation from Africa. Spanish planters bought 53 of the slaves and put them on a ship called the Amistad bound for the Caribbean. On July 1, 1839, the slaves took over the ship, killed the captain and the cook, and ordered the slave holders to sail to Africa. But on August 24, 1839, the U.S. Navy took control of the ship and the slaveholders were freed; the Africans were imprisoned in the United States for murder. The charges were dismissed, but the courts did not know what to do with the Africans. After going before the Supreme Court it was decided that they had been illegally forced into slavery and thus were allowed to go back to Africa.
Apartheid - South Africa's legal system of complete, rigid separation between blacks and whites.
Appeasement - A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in hopes of avoiding war.
Armistice - An agreement to simply stop fighting, not to be confused with a peace treaty.
Arnold, Benedict - American general who won several battles against the British but then joined them and tried to help them win the war. He had planned to give his keys to West Point, a U.S. army base, to Britain's Major John Andre. Before he could, Andre was captured and hanged. Arnold got away and commanded British troops later in the war. He died in Britain, unrecognized and alone, considered a traitor to his country.
Artifact - Any object made by humans, especially one that has archeological interest.
Authoritarian - Requiring absolute loyalty and obedience to those in power.
Balance of power - A defensive strategy to maintain an equilibrium, in which weak countries join together to match or exceed the power of a stronger country.
Balance of trade - The difference in value between a country's imports and exports.
Barton, Clara - Barton was the organizer of the first American Red Cross. Also known as the "Angel of the Battlefield," she had supplies brought to doctors and nurses in the field during the Civil War.
Battle of San Jacinto - American victory over Mexican forces on April 21, 1836. After defeats at the Alamo and Goliad, 910 Americans, led by Sam Houston, marched on San Jacinto and defeated a Mexican force of 1,500. All of the Mexican fighters were either killed or captured. As a result, Texas became a Republic.
Battle of the Alamo - San Antonio fort that was attacked by Mexican forces on March 6, 1836. The Mexican army under General Santa Anna killed all of the 189 American defenders, including Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie.
Bering Strait - A small channel of water that connects the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean, between Siberia and Alaska.
Bickerdyke, Mary Ann - A popular Civil War nurse who championed the rights of soldiers and fought for pensions for Civil War nurses and doctors.
Bison - A large, shaggy-manned mammal with a large head, short horns and a fleshy hump on its back. It originally prospered in great numbers across the American Midwest.
Black Codes - Laws that limited the rights of slaves passed by Southern state legislatures during the Reconstruction, while the United States Congress was out of session. These codes led Congress to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment.
Blackwell, Antoinette Brown - She was the first female ordained minister to be recognized by any denomination, even though there was strong opposition to having women in the ministry.
Blackwell, Elizabeth - She was the first female medical doctor in America. Blackwell founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children and the Women's Medical College, when other New York hospitals would not let her practice medicine.
Bleeding Kansas - The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 established the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and allowed settlement of the land. The residents of these territories were allowed to decide whether to become free or slave states. In Kansas, violence broke out between people who were pro-slavery versus those who were for a free state and the abolitionists. This continued until 1861, when Kansas became a free state in the U.S.
Blitzkrieg - A war conducted with sudden, quick massive offensives.
Blockade - The closing off of a nation's ports by ships or troops to prevent passage in or out, primarily to disrupt trade.
Booth, John Wilkes - Born in 1835, Booth was an actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln. He was a Confederate sympathizer who wanted to punish Lincoln for the Civil War.
Boston Massacre - The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770, five years before the American Revolution, between British troops and a group of citizens of Boston. British troops were being housed in Boston to discourage the citizens from uprising over the Townshend Acts. Citizens constantly harassed the troops. While they were practicing maneuvers in the city, objects thrown by the colonists struck a group of British soldiers. The soldiers fired into the crowd and killed five men. The soldiers were tried for murder and two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter and were branded on the thumb. The other soldiers were acquitted.
Boston Tea Party - The Boston Tea Party occurred when a group of Boston citizens decided to protest the British tax on tea imported to the colonies. In November of 1773, the colonists would not allow British ships to unload tea in Boston. The royal governor of Massachusetts would not let the tea ships return to England until the duty had been paid. On December 16, a group of Bostonians led by Samuel Adams, many of them disguised as Native Americans, boarded the ships and emptied the tea into Boston Harbor. When the government of Boston refused to pay for the tea, the British closed the port.
Bourgeoisie - In medieval France, people who lived in town rather than in the rural country; according to Karl Marx, the capitalist middle class.
Boyd, Belle - She was a Confederate spy during the Civil War. She later went to Europe and became a stage actress. When she returned to the United States, she toured the country telling tales of her life during the Civil War.
Brown, John - Brown was an American abolitionist who aided slaves trying to escape the South via the Underground Railroad. He was a radical who planned and executed a raid on the arsenal at Harper's Ferry. He was hanged for his deeds in 1859.
Bryant, William Cullen - He was an American poet who wrote the poem "Thanatopsis."
Buchanan, James - A Democrat who held office from 1857-1861, he had been a lawyer with a reputation as a brilliant speaker. Buchanan was born in Cove Gap, PA in April of 1791. He won the Presidency and took office just as tension over slavery between the North and the South came to a head. He was constantly torn between states' rights and the Constitution. He left office just before the secession of the southern states. "Old Buck" died in Pennsylvania on June 1, 1768.
Bull Run, First Battle of (First Manassas) - This Civil War battle took place on July 21, 1861 in Virginia. It was the first major battle of the war. Brig. General Irvin McDowell led the Union army; the Confederate leader was General Beauregard. The Confederate forces pushed back the attacking Union forces and were eventually victorious. This battle proved that this would not be an easy war to win for the Union and Lincoln realized that the war would be a long and deadly one.
Bull Run, Second Battle of - Considered a victory for the South, this Civil War battle in Virginia took place between August 28-30, 1862 between General Lee (Confederacy) and General Pope (Union). It was an important victory for the morale of the South.
Burgess - A representative in the popular branch of the legislature of colonial Maryland and Virginia.
Cabot, John - Cabot is best known for rediscovering Newfoundland in Canada in 1497, while looking for a shorter route to Asia. He was an Italian explorer who was born in 1450 and died in 1498.
Capital - Wealth such as money or land that can be used to produce more wealth, or to be converted to other types of assets in times of need.
Carpetbaggers - People who moved to the South during or following the Civil War, and then became active in politics.
Cartier, Jacques - A French explorer born in 1491, he left France in 1534, looking for a passage through or around North America to East Asia. He forged a relationship with the Native Americans in the region around the St. Lawrence River. It was a relationship that he would ultimately betray. He died at the age of 66, never having discovered a Northwest Passage.
Cartographer - A person who makes maps.
Champlain, Samuel de - A great French explorer, born in 1567; he was looking for a Northwest Passage when he mapped the northeastern part of North America. He formed a settlement in Quebec and discovered Lake Champlain.
Chancellorsville, Battle of - This battle took place April 30-May 6, 1863 in Virginia. The Confederate forces led by Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson defeated the Union forces of Major General Joseph Hooker. There were 24,000 total casualties, including Stonewall Jackson.
Chart - An outline map exhibiting something in its geographical aspects, related to climate and magnetic variances.
Charter - A grant or guarantee of rights or privileges from the sovereign power of a state or country.
Chattanooga, Battle of - This battle took place on November 23-25, 1863 in Tennessee between Union leader Ulysses S. Grant and Confederate leader Braxton Bragg. A major victory for the North, Chattanooga became a major supply base for further campaigns in the South by the North.
Chief Joseph - A Native American of the Nez Perce tribe, Joseph resisted when the government wanted to take his tribe's land and move them to a reservation in Oklahoma. He retreated and tried to move his people to Canada so that they could align with the Sioux. Just 40 miles from the border he had to surrender and his tribe was moved to the reservation.
Circumnavigate - To go completely around the earth, particularly (and of necessity) by water.
Civil Rights Act of 1866 - An act giving citizenship to African-Americans. It also gave them the right to sue, enter into contracts, and enjoy equality under the law. President Andrew Jackson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, but Congress overturned his veto and made it into law.
Clergy - An official of a religious group.
Cold War - A state of political tension and military rivalry between nations that stops short of actual full-scale war.
Colony - A body of people living in a new territory but retaining ties with the parent state.
Columbus, Christopher - Columbus was an Italian explorer who was born in 1451 to a family of weavers. He became an experienced sailor and eventually convinced the King and Queen of Spain to finance his expeditions. Columbus wanted to find new routes to the Far East, but in 1492 he landed in the Bahamas and claimed the land for Spain. He is popularly credited with the European discovery of America.
Command of the Army Act - This act was passed in 1867 and required that all military orders given by the President go through the General of the Army, who could not be removed unless with the approval of the Senate.
Committee of Correspondence - A network of communication set up between the colonies in reaction to the threat of a British plan to take away their rights. It was an effort by the colonists to keep each other informed about the perceived British threat.
Common Sense - A popular pamphlet by Thomas Paine, published in 1776, that denounced the British monarchy, called for American independence, and called for a Republican government. Paine's writings helped people believe that it was possible to stand up to Britain and to eventually win.
Commonwealth - A nation or state founded on law, united by compact or tacit agreement of the people for the common good.
Communism - A theory of government advocated by Karl Marx in which wealth and property are claimed to be owned in common by all, with labor shared equally among the people. The means of production and distribution are owned and controlled by the state.
Compact - An agreement between two or more parties.
Compass - A device for determining directions by means of a magnetic needle or group of needles turning freely on a pivot and pointing to the magnetic north.
Compromise of 1850 - A series of five legislative enactments, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1850. Largely written by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, they were designed to reconcile the political differences between the proslavery and antislavery factions in Congress. These enactments dealt with whether slavery was to be allowed or prohibited in the regions acquired from Mexico after the Mexican War. The first and second measure allowed for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and for California to be a free state. The third bill was the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which provided for the return of runaway slaves to their masters. The fourth measure opened up the territories of New Mexico (now New Mexico and Arizona) and Utah for settlement. The fifth measure provided that the state of Texas be awarded $10 million in settlement of claims to adjoining territory. The compromise resulted in an intensification of the hostility between the slave and free states.
Compromise of 1877 - A deal made between southern Democrats and Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes as there was no clear winner in the election of 1876; the southern Democrats agreed to let Hayes take office in return for his promise to withdraw the last of the Union troops from the Southern states. The removal of these troops in 1877 marked the end of the Reconstruction period.
Confederate States of America - The government (1861-65) established by the Southern states of the United States after their secession from the Union.
Confederates (Confederacy) - A name for soldiers that fought for the South during the Civil War.
Conquistador - A Spanish term for a person who is from one country and conquers another country or territory.
Cooper, James Fenimore - American novelist who wrote The Last of the Mohicans and The Deerslayer.
Copperheads - People in the North who did not want to go to war with the south were called Copperheads. They favored a peace settlement that would allow the South to leave the Union.
Cornwallis, Charles - British general during the American Revolution who won more battles than he lost, but ultimately surrendered at Yorktown, thus ending the war.
Coronado, Francisco - Born in 1510, Coronado was an explorer and conquistador, as well as the first European to explore North America's Southwest. He explored the area for treasure, but found very little. He used his expeditions as a justification to murder many of the Native Americans that he came in contact with. He died in 1554 and was considered a failure by the Spanish leaders.
Cortez, Hernando - He was born in Spain in 1485 and originally set out to be a farmer, but Cortez's bold nature prompted him to the open seas. He wanted to find silver and spices. Ultimately, he became famous for sailing to Mexico in the early 1500s and conquering the Aztecs.
Crazy Horse - A chief of the Oglala, Sioux Indians, Crazy Horse and his tribe were ordered to move to a reservation. They refused and mounted a successful attack, defeating General George Crook. Eight days later, he also mounted an attack on General George Custer and defeated him as well. He eventually surrendered to American troops in 1877 and was killed by a soldier putting him in a jail cell.
Culture - The customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group.
Currency Act - Act instituted by Britain that removed the right of American colonists to issue their own money. This decision was not popular with the American colonists.
Cushman, Pauline - Born in 1835, Cushman was a Union spy during the Civil War. She was caught by the Confederacy in 1863 and scheduled to be hanged, but she escaped and was able to provide Union leaders with even more information about the Confederate plans. After the war, she became a stage actress, but was very unhappy and killed herself in 1893.
Davis, Jefferson - Davis was the President of the Confederate States of America. He was born in 1808 in Kentucky to Samuel and Jane Cook Davis. Davis's father was a Revolutionary War soldier, and had three other sons before Davis. Davis attended Transylvania University in Kentucky before going to West Point and joining the United States Army. He married Sarah Taylor, daughter of Zachary Taylor, in 1833 but she died of malaria three months after their marriage. His health made him resign from the army in 1835 and Davis became a planter. In 1845 Davis married Varina Howell, who gave birth to a son, Joel, and a daughter, Margaret. Also in 1845, Davis became a U.S. Congressman, but just one year later he left Congress to serve in the Mexican War. He became a U.S. senator in 1847 and was Secretary of War under the United States President Franklin Pierce. Davis believed in the institution of slavery and in state's rights. When Mississippi withdrew from the Union, Davis resigned and in 1861 he became the President of the Confederate States. After the Civil War he was captured and imprisoned, but eventually released. He tried to become a businessman in his later years, but most of his enterprises failed. He died in 1889 in Mississippi.
Declaration of Independence - Document declaring the 13 American Colonies independent from Great Britain. Written by Thomas Jefferson and declared in effect by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The British response was to escalate the existing war.
Declaration of Sentiments - The Declaration of Sentiments was written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton for the women's rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Based on the American Declaration of Independence, the Sentiments demanded equality between men and women in law, in education and employment. It also demanded that women be given the right to vote.
Declaratory Act - This act in 1776 stated that the British Parliament had complete authority over the colonies. It said that Parliament had the power to make laws to govern the colonies, to tax them, and declared rule them the same way they ruled England.
Demilitarize - To remove military personnel and equipment from a specified area.
Détente - A policy of reduced tension between the United States and the U.S.S.R.
Dickinson, Emily - An American poet, known for her imagery, she was virtually unknown until her poetry was found after she died. One of her most famous poems is "I Felt A Funeral In My Brain."
Dix, Dorothea - An advocate for the mentally ill, she lobbied for humane treatment of mental patients and for a reform the healthcare system.
Doctrine - A principle presented for acceptance or belief by a religious body or political organization.
Donner Party - A group of American colonists who migrated to California in 1846-47. Two families, the Donners and the Reeds, made up most of the 87 members of the party. They left Illinois for California in 1846. They became trapped by heavy snows in the Sierra Nevada in November. The party camped for the winter at a small lake and they suffered enormous hardships. Some members of the group resorted to cannibalism in order to survive. Rescue parties eventually brought 47 of them to California. All of the others died.
Stephen Douglas - Elected senator in 1847, Douglas is best known for his debates with Abraham Lincoln. In 1858, Douglas and Lincoln both ran for the Illinois state Senate. They participated in seven debates. In the end, Douglas won the election. He eventually ran for President, but was unsuccessful.
Dred-Scott Decision - A case in the 1850s in which the Supreme Court declared that African Americans were not U.S. citizens. It also determined that the portion of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 that banned slavery in U.S. territories north and west of the state of Missouri was unconstitutional.
Edmonds, Sarah Emma - Edmonds enlisted in the Union Army by dressing up as a man and calling herself Frank Thompson. She later applied to be a spy for the Union and was accepted. She led eleven successful missions into Confederate territory and supplied the Union leaders with valuable information.
Electoral College - A collective name for the electors who officially choose the President and Vice President of the United States. Each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the total number of senators and representatives it sends to the Congress of the United States. Thus, each state has at least three electors.
Embargo Act of 1807 - An attempt to stop British and French interference with American shipping by prohibiting foreign trade.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo - American essayist best known for his essay "Self-Reliance."
Emigration - The act of leaving one's place of residence or country to live elsewhere.
Enlighten - To inform or educate.
Enlightenment - A period in the 18th century concerned with the critical examination of previously accepted doctrines.
Era of Good Feelings - This was a phrase used to describe the years following the War of 1812, when one party, the Jeffersonian Republicans, dominated politics, and a spirit of nationalism characterized public policy.
Erikson, Leif - Born in 980 AD in Norway, this great explorer was blown off course and inadvertently discovered North America in 1002 AD. He died in 1020 AD.
Evans, Augusta Jane - American novelist best known for her book St. Elmo.
Fascism - A political movement that believes in an extreme form of nationalism: denying individual rights, insisting upon the supremacy of the state, and advocating one-party rule with ultimate authority resting in the hands of a dictator.
Fillmore, Millard - A member of the Whig party, Fillmore was born on January 7, 1800 in Locke Township, NY. He was a successful lawyer before he became President in 1850. He served in office from 1850-1853 and was known as the "American Louis Philippe." After leaving office, he became the Chancellor of the University of Buffalo. Fillmore died in Virginia January 18, 1862.
First Continental Congress - This was the most important expression of colonial protest activity before 1774. The delegates met in Philadelphia for nearly two months. More radical delegates dominated the deliberations. The Congress called for ongoing resistance, even military preparations to defend American communities. It also called for a second Congress in the event that Britain did not address their grievances.
Florida Territory - Acquired from Spain in 1821 in an effort by Spain to avoid going to war with the United States over the land. Spain ceded the land the America and in exchange the United States agreed to assume claims that American citizens had made against Spain.
Forty-Niners - In March of 1848, gold was found in California and by May of that year a few hundred gold seekers came to California. By the end of 1848, there were thousands. Before long, people flocked to California to make their riches in gold. "Boomtowns" grew very quickly. By the end of the Gold Rush, more than 300,000 people had migrated to California. The gold seekers were called forty-niners for the year 1849 when the Gold Rush was at its peak.
Franklin, Benjamin - He was a statesman, publisher, inventor, and patriot known for writing Poor Richard's Almanac and inventing a wide variety of useful things. He was the American representative to England for a few years and cultivated a good relationship between the United States and France. He also served as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention.
Fredericksburg, Battle of - Fought on December 11-15, 1862 in Virginia, Major General Burnside and the Union forces defeated Confederate forces led by General Robert E. Lee. This Civil War battle ended in the death of more than 13,000 Union soldiers and caused confidence in the North to sink.
Free colonist - A colonist who was not indentured or enslaved and lived in the colony of his or her own free will.
Free trade - In the international market, the flow of commerce without regulation.
Freedman's Bureau - It was established in the War Department by an act of March 3, 1865. It supervised all relief and educational activities relating to refugees and freedmen, including issuing rations, clothing and medicine. The Bureau also assumed custody of confiscated lands or property in the former Confederate States, border states, District of Columbia, and Indian Territory.
Freedmen - Slaves who had bought or won their freedom.
Fugitive Slave Law - An element of the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Law provided for the return of runaway slaves to their masters.
Fuller, Margaret - Literary critic, editor, teacher, and author. She was an advocate for liberation for everyone, especially women.
Gadsden Purchase - Land purchased from Mexico in 1853 comprised of southern New Mexico and the southern quarter of Arizona. The purchase resulted from a misunderstanding after the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. Mexico needed the money and the United States purchased the land for $15 million.
Gama, Vasco de - Born in 1469, he was an accomplished explorer and sea captain who sought a route from Portugal to the East, which he found in 1499. He died in India in 1524.
Geocentric theory - The theory that the earth is in the center of the universe.
Gettysburg, Battle of - Considered to be the turning point in the Civil War, this battle was fought July 1-3, 1863 in Pennsylvania. A showdown between Major General George Meade (Union) and General Robert E. Lee, that resulted in a Union victory. It was a major blow to Confederate morale.
Glacier - A large body of ice flowing seaward, like a river, over a land surface.
Glasnost - The Russian term for the policy of openness in the Soviet Union.
Global economy - All the financial interactions among people, businesses, and governments that cross international borders.
Gold Rush - The Gold Rush was a huge westward migration after the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California in 1848. California's population grew from about 14,000 in 1848 to almost 100,000 by 1850.
Grant, Ulysses S. - Born in 1822 in Point Pleasant, Ohio, Grant was the commander of the Union army during the Civil War and was elected President in 1869, and was again elected for a second term in 1873. His first term was absorbed in the reconstruction of the South and his second term was beset by rumors of impropriety in the White House. He died in 1886 of throat cancer.
Greenhow, Rose O'Neal - She was a widowed Washington socialite and Confederate sympathizer who gave information about the Union plans at Bull Run (Manassas) in 1861 to the Confederacy. She was captured and sent to prison, but left America, for England. She was returning in 1864 when she was killed in a shipwreck.
Guerrilla - A band of fighters - not part of a formal army - who attack suddenly and withdraw swiftly.
Habeas corpus - See Writ of Habeas corpus below.
Hale, Sarah Josepha - Feminist and editor of the Ladies Magazine. She wrote "Mary Had A Little Lamb" and was an advocate of higher education for women.
Harper's Ferry - In 1859, John Brown led a party of 21 men in an attack on the Federal armory at Harper's Ferry. Brown encouraged slaves to join his rebellion. Two days after the attack, Robert E. Lee and a company of marines stormed the armory. Brown and six men barricaded themselves in an engine-house and continued to fight until Brown was seriously wounded and two of his sons had been killed.
Harrison, William Henry - Born in Berkeley, VA in February 1773, Harrison was a member of the Whig party and an American soldier who fought in the War of 1812. He was known as "Old Tippecanoe" for his defeat of Tecumseh at Tippecanoe. Harrison became President in 1841 and died one month later on April 4th in Washington DC.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel - American novelist whose novel The Scarlet Letter is now considered a classic.
Hayes, Rutherford B. - The 19th President of the United States, Hayes, a Democrat, was elected in 1877 and served one term in the office. Born in Delaware, Ohio in 1822, Hayes was a Harvard trained lawyer and was elected governor of Ohio for three terms. His Presidency was marked by partisan politics and resulted in his inability to pass many of the reforms that he sought to put in place. Hayes retired after his Presidency and died in 1893.
Heliocentric theory - The theory that the sun is the center of the universe.
Henry, Patrick - Orator and passionate advocate of American independence best known for his speech ending with, "Give me liberty, or give me death!" He was critical of the Stamp Act and introduced seven resolutions against it to the Virginia House of Burgesses. He was the first governor of Virginia and fought for the adoption of the Bill of Rights.
Holocaust - The systematic murder of the European Jews and other groups by the Nazis.
Holy Alliance - 1815 agreement among the emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia. The alliance was an attempt by the conservative rulers to preserve the social order.
Homestead Act - This Act was passed by the U.S. Congress in 1862. It provided for the transfer of 160 acres of unoccupied public land to each homesteader on payment of a small fee after five years of residence. Land could also be acquired after six months of residence at $1.25 per acre.
Hudson, Henry - Born in England in 1570, this experienced explorer was hired to find a shorter route from England to the Spice Islands. While looking for a Northwest Passage in North America, Hudson discovered a river and noted it in his logs. This river is now found in New York and is called the Hudson River.
Huguenots - In the 1500s and 1600s a group of French Protestants who were followers of Calvinism.
Humanist - One who studies classical texts. May also denote a person who believes that secular humanity is the central and most proper concern of political and cultural discussion or policy.
Ice Age - A period before written history, approximately 34,000 BC to 30,000 BC, when most of the world's water was frozen into very large sheets of ice.
Immigration - The act of migrating to a country of which one is not a native for permanent residence.
Imperialism - The policy of extending one country's rule over many lands.
Import - To bring goods into a country.
Indentured servant - In order to get English people to the colonies, some businesses offered legal bonded contracts that would exchange the cost of passage across the Atlantic for up to seven years of labor in America.
Indian Removal Act - A law signed by President Andrew Jackson in 1830 providing for the resettlement of Native Americans to lands west of the Mississippi River. From 1830 to 1840 about 60,000 Native Americans were forced to migrate.
Indulgence - A pardon given by the Roman Catholic Church; a promise of repentance for sins in exchange for a donation of money or property.
Industrial Revolution - Historic period in the 18th and 19th centuries in which society greatly increased focus on machines, factories, and industry, resulting in tremendous growth in availability of machine-made goods.
Internment camp - A prison-like camp for political prisoners, aliens, or prisoners of war.
Intolerable Acts - The name given by American patriots to five laws adopted by Parliament in 1774 that limited the political and geographical freedom of the colonists.
Iron curtain - The division of Europe into two political regions: Communist and non-Communist.
Irving, Washington - Novelist best known for The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
Jackson, Andrew - This Democrat was born in Waxhaw, South Carolina in March of 1767. He was a lawyer and a soldier before becoming President. Jackson's years in office, 1829-1837, marked a couple of firsts for the U.S. Presidency. He was the first President to set up a panel of informal advisors he called a "cabinet." It was during his Presidency that the United States became debt free for the first time. He left office in 1837, just a year after the Battle of the Alamo. "Old Hickory," as he was known, died June 8, 1845 in Nashville, TN.
Jackson, Stonewall - Known as Stonewall for his actions in the face of battle, Thomas Jonathan Jackson was a Confederate general who also served in the Mexican War. He was born in Virginia and was a career military man who graduated from West Point in 1846 at the age of 22. From 1851 to 1861, he taught at the Virginia Military Institute, but went back into combat at the beginning of the Civil War. In 1863, Jackson was accidentally killed by his own men during the Battle of Chancellorsville.
Jefferson, Thomas - Jefferson was known as the "Man of the People" and was one of the most prominent statesmen of his time. He was born in Albemarle County in Virginia on April 13, 1743. He was a planter and surveyor, as well as, a Republican. He was the drafter of the Declaration of Independence and began his Presidency in 1801. It was during his time in office, 1801-1809, that he purchased the Louisiana territory from Napoleon. At the end of his term in office, Jefferson retired to Monticello, VA, where he died, July 4, 1826.
Johnson, Andrew - Johnson, a Democrat, inherited the Presidency after the death of Abraham Lincoln. He was born on December 29, 1808 in Raleigh, NC. He was a tailor with a passion for public speaking and public service. He took over the Presidency in 1865 and continued, albeit with difficulty, the reconstruction of the South, which was still in turmoil after the Civil War. In 1869 the Senate tried to impeach Johnson, but the resolution failed by one vote. He left office in 1869. He died in Tennessee in July of 1875.
Joint-stock company - A company given the right to develop trade between England and other countries. Investors would pool their capital, in return for shares of stock, to underwrite trading ventures.
Joliet, Louis - Canadian explorer who explored the Canadian wilderness and also discovered the Mississippi River in 1673 at the age of 28. He was mapping the area with Father Jacques Marquette.
Kansas-Nebraska Act - Controversial 1854 legislation that opened Kansas and Nebraska to white settlement, repealed the Compromise of 1820, and led opponents to form the Republican Party. It would have allowed settlers to determine whether the territory would have become free or slave.
Know Nothings - An anti-foreign, anti-Catholic political party that arose following massive Irish and Catholic immigration during the late 1840s.
La Salle, Robert de - He was a French explorer who was sent by King Louis XIV to travel from Canada down the Mississippi River. He was supposed to establish trade routes along the way. He was successful in establishing trade routes, but failed to find a passage from the Mississippi to the Atlantic Ocean. He was born in 1643 and was killed during a mutiny in 1687.
Laissez-faire - A belief in the absence of government regulation in business.
Latitude - Angular distance north or south from the Earth's equator measured through 90 degrees.
Lee, Robert E. - Lee led the Confederate Army toward the end of the Civil War. Born in 1807 in Virginia, his father was Henry Lee, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Lee graduated from West Point Academy in 1829 served in the Mexican War and became the superintendent of West Point. He was a member of the U.S. Army and was torn when the Civil War began. He did not support slavery and had loved serving in the army, but when Virginia seceded from the Union, he resigned from the army and joined the Confederate forces. Eventually, Lee commanded the Army of Northern Virginia, worked his way up the ranks and was leader of the Southern forces before he ultimately surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, thus ending the Civil War. Lee died in 1870 having spent his last years as the President of Washington College.
Leon, Ponce de - He was the Spanish explorer who discovered Florida. He was searching for the fountain of youth and other valuables. He also discovered the Atlantic current now known as the Gulf Stream and established a settlement in Puerto Rico. He was born in 1460 and died in 1521.
Liberalism - A political philosophy of limited government and protection of individual rights and freedoms.
Lincoln, Abraham - The sixteenth President of the United States, Lincoln was known as "Honest Abe". He was born in Hardin County, KY on February 12, 1809 to poverty-stricken parents Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, who had given birth to Lincoln's sister Sarah two years before Lincoln was born. Lincoln's mother also gave birth to another son who died as a baby. Lincoln's mother died when he was nine and his father married a widow, Sarah Johnston, who had three children of her own. Lincoln taught himself how to read and eventually became a lawyer. He was elected to the Illinois state legislature in 1834, where he served four terms. In 1842, he married Mary Todd with whom he had four sons, though only one of them reached adulthood. Lincoln then served one term in Congress beginning in 1847. At one time he decided to retire from politics, and returned to practicing law. However, Lincoln could not stay away from politics and became President of the United States in 1861 on the Republican ticket. His years in office were marked with the Civil War. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation abolishing slavery in America and delivered his famous speech now known as the "Gettysburg Address." He also brought an end to the Civil War. Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865 and died the next day in Washington DC.
Literacy - The ability to read or write.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth - American poet known for his poems "Evangeline" and "A Psalm of Life."
Longitude - The angular distance measured on a great circle of reference from the intersection of the adopted zero meridian with this reference circle to the similar intersection of the meridian passing through the object. In other words, longitude is to precisely locate a position relative to east or west.
Ludington, Sybil - A 16 year old girl who rode 40 miles warning colonists that the British soldiers were coming their way, April 26, 1777.
Louisiana Territory purchase - Land purchased by Thomas Jefferson in 1803 from France for about $15 million. Jefferson wanted to acquire land west of the Mississippi so that trade routes, especially those in New Orleans, would not be interrupted; France wanted to sell to avoid having the United States take this area by force. Jefferson went to France there and signed the treaty to acquire the land.
Lyon, Mary - She was the founder of the first college for women, Mt. Holyoke. It became the model for women's higher education.
Madison, James - A Democratic-Republican, Madison was born in Port Conway, Virginia on March 16, 1751. He was a lawyer and is now known as the "Father of the Constitution". He was President from 1809-1817. His Presidency was marked by the War of 1812, which ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1812. Madison died in Montpelier, VA in June of 1836.
Magellan, Ferdinand - Attempting to reach Southeast Asia and to then sail around the world, this 39-year-old Portuguese explorer set sail in 1519. He discovered a pass through the tip of South America from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. He never completed his circumnavigation of the globe, because he was killed by natives in the Philippines in 1521.
Mandate - A territory administered on behalf of the League of Nations, or currently the United Nations, until it was judged ready for independence.
Manifest Destiny - The belief held by many Americans in the 1840s that the United States was destined to expand across the continent, by force if necessary.
Marbury v. Madison - This landmark 1803 Supreme Court decision, which established the principle of judicial review, marked the first time that the Court declared an act of Congress unconstitutional.
Married Women's Property Act - In 1848 laws were passed giving women the right to own, control and inherit property. It also gave women the right to sue people in a court of law. Before this time, women had very few rights concerning property.
Marquette, Father Jacques - Born in 1637, Marquette was a French Jesuit priest and an explorer intending to convert Native Americans to Christianity. He discovered the Mississippi River with Louis Joliet in 1673.
McCulloch v. Maryland - A landmark 1819 Supreme Court decision establishing Congress's power to charter a national bank and declaring unconstitutional a tax imposed by Maryland on the bank's Baltimore branch.
Melville, Herman - American novelist who wrote Moby Dick.
Mercantile System - An economic system of the major trading nations during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries; it was based on the idea that national wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and collecting precious metals in return.
Mercantilism - An economic theory under which a country increases its wealth by exporting more goods than it imports.
Meridian - A great circle of the Earth passing through its poles and the zenith of a given place.
Mexican Cession - An area of land given up by Mexico at the end of the Mexican war as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This territory included all of the present-day states of California, Nevada, and Utah and also parts of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.
Mexican War - This war was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846–48. The United States' victory allowed the U.S. to acquire vast amounts of territory from Mexico.
Migrant - A person who continually moves from one place to another looking for work.
Militarism - Glorification of armed strength.
Minutemen - American soldiers who could be ready to fight "at a minute's notice."
Missouri Compromise - 1820 piece of legislation that regulated the extension of slavery. In 1818 there were 11 slave states and 11 free states, and when Missouri applied to be a slave state, it would have made the number of slave and free states uneven. The Senate tried to reach a compromise and by 1820 another free state had been admitted to the Union. Missouri was then allowed to become a slave state, but only with the understanding that the land in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase would not be slave holding.
Molasses Act - An act passed by the British Parliament in 1733 placing a large tax on all sugar, molasses, and rum imported into the American colonies from non-British islands in the Caribbean. The Molasses Act was ineffective. Colonists simply smuggled the goods to the colonies and Parliament was unable to enforce the act. It was later repealed by the Sugar Act.
Monroe Doctrine - In 1823 President James Monroe declared that the United States would not allow European countries to create new colonies in the Western Hemisphere or to expand the boundaries of existing colonies.
Monroe, James - A member of a Democratic-Republican Party, Monroe was a lawyer from Virginia. He was born in April of 1758 in Westmoreland County. His Presidency lasted from 1817 until 1825. In 1819 he helped the United States acquire Florida from Spain. His Presidency also saw the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and he devised the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. He was known as the "Era-of-Good-Feeling President" and died in New York, NY on July 4, 1831.
Morrill Land Grant Act - In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law a new piece of legislation introduced by U.S. Representative Justin Smith Morrill. It granted to each state 30,000 acres of public land for each Senator and Representative. Proceeds from the sale of these lands were to be invested in a perpetual endowment fund, which would provide support for colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts in each of the states.
Morrill Tariff Act - Representative Justin Morrill sponsored the Tariff Act of 1860, which introduced high import duties aimed at protecting American industry from overseas competition.
Mott, Lucretia - A Quaker who was a leader in the women's rights movement. She also fought slavery. She was one of the organizers of the first women's rights convention at Seneca Falls.
Mounds - A term for the burial sites erected by early Native Americans.
Nashville, Battle of - Led by Major General George Thomas, Union soldiers claimed a victory against General John Hood's Confederate army on December 14-15, 1864 in Tennessee.
National Woman Suffrage Association - An organization formed in 1890 to seek a constitutional amendment to grant women the right to vote throughout the nation, an effort eventually leading to the Nineteenth Amendment.
Nationalism - The belief that one's greatest loyalty should be to one's own country.
Navigation - During travel, the method of determining position, course, and distance traveled.
Nonimportation Act of 1806 - This U.S. act forbade the importation of specified British goods in order to force Great Britain to relax its strict rulings on cargoes and sailors.
Northwest passage - During the Age of Exploration, explorers and traders from England, France, and the Netherlands kept seeking an all-water route across North America. They wanted to gain faster access to the Orient for trade; they also wanted to avoid contact with the Spanish empire in Central and South America.
Nullification - The doctrine, devised by John C. Calhoun, that a state has the power to nullify a federal legislation within its borders.
Olive Branch Petition - During the American Revolution, this was a last attempt at a peaceful end to the revolution. On July 5, 1775, Congress drafted the Olive Branch Petition. It outlined their issues and asked the British government to respond, but King George III of England refused to accept the petition. He thought that he would be able to quell the American rebellion without any concessions.
Ordinance of Nullification - A doctrine drafted by supporters of extreme states' rights. It asserted that states could declare null and void any federal law that they deem unconstitutional.
Oregon Territory - After being settled in the early 1800s, the Oregon territory was shared by Britain and America. Since it was primarily settled and explored by the United States, Britain gave up any rights to the land. The area was rich in fur and other valuable goods that could be traded. In 1848, President James Polk signed a bill creating the Oregon Territory.
Pacific Railroad Act - In 1862, Congress passed the Pacific Railroads Act, which set the framework for the construction of a central transcontinental rail route.
Paine, Thomas - A patriot and American soldier who wrote Common Sense and The Crisis, both of which inspired the American population and furthered the Revolutionary cause.
Peace of Paris - Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay traveled to Paris, France after Cornwallis surrendered at the end of the American Revolution. They went to negotiate a peace treaty between the U.S. and Britain.
Perestroika - The Russian term for economic restructuring and relaxing of government control in the Soviet Union.
Persecution - The act or practice of treating others unfairly, especially those who differ in national origin, race, religion, or social outlook.
Perspective - A technique of giving objects in a picture the appearance of depth and distance.
Petersburg, Battle of –This 10 month battle took place in Virginia in 1864 and 1865. Union commander Ulysses S. Grant hoped to take Petersburg and move south to the Confederate capital of Richmond, but the Confederate armies led by Robert E. Lee and P.G.T. Beauregard were able to defend their position against the Union armies for quite some time before Grant cut off their supply lines and forced a Confederate retreat.
Pierce, Franklin - "The Young Hickory of the Granite Hills," was born November 23, 1804 in Hillsborough, NY. This Democrat and former lawyer was President from 1853 through 1857. During his time in office, he saw the passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and oversaw the 1853 Gadsden Purchase. Pierce died on October 8, 1869 in Concord, NH.
Pitcher, Molly - Her real name was Mary McCauley. During the Battle of Monmouth, Mary carried water to the soldiers as they fought. When her husband, a soldier, was wounded, she took over and fired his cannon until the end of the battle.
Pizarro, Francisco - A Spanish conquistador who intended to plunder the riches of other civilizations. Born in 1478, Pizzaro, like most Spanish conquistadors, was known for his brutality. He discovered the Incan empire, which he subsequently conquered. He founded the city of Lima in South America and was eventually assassinated by another explorer who wanted the town's riches.
Plantation - An agricultural estate usually worked by resident laborers.
Poe, Edgar Allan - American novelist and poet known for his macabre tales, like the poem "The Raven" and the short story The Cask of Amontillado.
Pogrom - A systematic, organized mass murder of a minority group, such as the Jews in Nazi Germany before and during World War II.
Polk, James Knox - A lawyer from Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, Polk was born on November 2, 1795. He was a Democrat who became President in 1845. It was through the Treaty of 1848 that Polk helped the United States acquire California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, parts of Colorado, and Wyoming. His term ended in 1849. "Young Hickory," as he was nicknamed, died in Nashville, TN on June 15, 1849, just a few months after leaving office.
Polo, Marco - Born in Venice, Italy in 1254, Polo's exploration of the Orient is well documented. Polo traveled with his father and uncle and explored China between 1260 and 1275, the group endearing themselves to the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan. He wrote extensively about his travels and died in 1324.
Popular sovereignty - A doctrine under which the status of slavery in the territories was to be determined by the settlers themselves. See Kansas-Nebraska Act.
Predestination - The doctrine that God has already chosen those who are destined for salvation.
Prince Henry the Navigator - Henry was the son of King Joao of Portugal and was born in 1394. He is famous for rounding the tip of southern Africa and finding a route to the East Indies in the 1420s. He was also a Governor of Christ from 1420 until his death in 1460.
Proletariat - According to Karl Marx, the urban working class.
Propaganda - One-sided information typically presented by a political organization designed to convince people of a certain view.
Protectionism - The policy of governmentally enforced economic protection for domestic producers through restrictions, such as tariffs, on foreign imports.
Protectorate - A country or state that is controlled by an outside government.
Pueblo - A Native American village with flat-roofed stone or adobe houses that can be several stories high and are connected together.
Quartering Act - This 1766 act forced American colonists to pay for British soldiers' needs, such as food, clothing, weapons, and housing.
Quebec Act - Passed in 1774 by the British Parliament, it implemented a permanent administration in Canada, which until then had only a temporary government.
Radical - A person favoring sweeping economic or social change.
Radicalism - A political movement supporting sweeping economic or social change.
Reconstruction - A term for the time of the rebuilding of the South after the Civil War.
Refugee - A person who flees to a foreign country or power to escape danger or persecution.
Renaissance - A period between 1300 and 1600 marked by a revival of interest in Greek and Roman art, literature, and learning.
Reparations - Monetary or material compensation paid by a nation for the damages it has inflicted upon another nation or a certain population group.
Representative assembly - A group, usually elected, representing a larger group of people.
Rose, Ernestine - One of the first vocal advocates for women's rights and the abolishment of slavery. Her voice led the way for others to speak out.
Ross, Betsy - Seamstress credited with sewing the first American stars and stripes flag.
Royal colony - The legal right granted by the King to settle a new colony.
Sacagawea - A Shoshone Native American woman who accompanied Lewis and Clark on their wilderness expedition.
Satellite - A) A country whose policies are dictated or heavily influenced by another country;
B) An object that orbits a planet.
Satire - Literature that mocks a political group, figure, or society for its wickedness or foolishness.
Scalawags - A derogatory term for white Southerners who became Republicans during the Reconstruction; they came from every class and had a variety of motives but were depicted by their opponents as ignorant interlopers.
Secession - Formal withdrawal from an organization.
Seneca Falls Convention - Held in 1848 in New York, this convention is recognized as the beginning of the women's rights movement in America. Over three hundred women attended and spent two days refining Elizabeth Cady Stanton's Declaration of Sentiments, a document calling for more rights for women.
Serra, Father Junipero - Serra was a Spanish priest who went to Mexico to convert the natives to Christianity. He established missions in Mexico and California. He used the native populations to build his missions though many of them died in the effort. He was born 1713 and died in 1784. He was eventually canonized by the Catholic Church as a saint.
Sequoia - A Cherokee tribe member who invented a written language for the Cherokees.
Seven Days' Battle - This battle was fought from June 25 until July 1, 1862 around Richmond, Virginia. Robert E. Lee's Confederate army attacked General McClellan's numerically superior army. After several engagements, Lee was unable to destroy McClellan's army but was able to force him to retreat.
Seven Years War - During 1756–63, this worldwide war was fought in Europe, North America, and India with France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and Spain on one side and Prussia, Great Britain, and Hanover on the other.
Shareholder - A person who holds or owns a share in property.
Sherman, William Tecumseh - Born in 1820, Sherman was a Union general during the Civil War. After serving in the Mexican War, he became a banker and a lawyer and served as the head of the Louisiana state military academy. When Louisiana seceded, he joined the U.S. Army, where he distinguished himself and practically reinvented the art of war. He served in the army until 1884, when he retired.
Shiloh - This Civil War battle took place on April 6th and 7th in 1861 in Tennessee. Led by General Ulysses S. Grant, the Union troops were encamped in Shiloh and had been advised that Confederate troops were very far away, so they felt they were under no threat of attack. Albert Johnston and his Confederate soldiers caught them by surprise and forced the retreat of the Union army, but the Union soldiers were given orders to stand their ground, which they did. Hundreds of men died, including Johnston, on April 6th. On April 7th, reinforcements from Don Carlos Buell came to support Grant, and the Confederate army was steadily pushed back and eventually forced to retreat. During the battle, the North lost 13,000 men and the South lost almost 11,000. Despite the Union victory, Grant was subsequently criticized for his handling of the army and many people pressured Lincoln to relieve him of command. Fortunately for the Union, Lincoln did not.
Sitting Bull - A member of the Sioux tribe, he was the chief "medicine man" at the Battle of Little Bighorn, where U.S. General George Custer was defeated.
Socialism - The belief that the wealth of a country should be equitably distributed amongst all its citizens according to need rather than according to one's social and economic status.
Sons of Liberty - A secret organization of American colonists formed to protest the Stamp Act. It was disbanded after the Stamp Act was repealed.
Soto, Hernando de - Born in 1500, this Spanish conquistador explored Florida and the southeastern United States. His goal was to plunder the riches of the tribes of North and South America. He helped Pizzaro conquer the Incas. He died during an expedition in 1542.
Species - A class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name.
Spotsylvania, Battle of - This campaign in Virginia was another stalemate between Ulysses S. Grant (Union) and Robert E. Lee (Confederacy). The battle took place May 8-21, 1864. Some of the most vicious combat of the war took place here. While neither side could declare victory, Grant was able to lead his men farther toward the Confederate capital of Richmond, VA. There were 18,000 Union casualties and 12,000 Confederate casualties. (Casualties represent both dead and wounded soldiers.)
Stamp Act - A revenue law passed in 1765 by the British Parliament. It was the first direct tax to be levied on the American colonies. It required that all newspapers, pamphlets, legal documents, commercial bills, advertisements, and other papers issued in the colonies have a stamp. This was the first of many taxes levied on the colonies by the British Empire.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady - She fought for women's rights, particularly the right to vote. She was one of the primary planners of the earliest women's rights conventions at Seneca Falls. She had the ability to pull women together for a common cause.
Stone, Lucy - Spent her life fighting for women's right to vote and the slaves' right to freedom. She founded The Women's Journal, an archive of women's history.
Stowe, Harriet Beecher - She was an African-American author who wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin and was an opponent of slavery. She was the first female writer to earn a living solely by writing.
Subsistence farming - Farming not to make a profit, but to raise crops and livestock upon which a family or individual could live.
Sugar Act - Passed by the English Parliament in 1764, this act increased taxes on imported sugar and other items such as textiles, coffee, wines and indigo dye. It also doubled the tax on foreign goods reshipped from England to the colonies.
Suffrage - The right to vote.
Tariff - A tax on imports.
Taylor, Zachary - Taylor was born on November 24, 1784 in Orange County, VA. He was a soldier and served in the War of 1812. He was known as "Old Rough and Ready" and was elected to the Presidency in 1849 as a member of the Whig Party. Only a year after becoming President, Taylor became ill with cholera and died in Washington DC in July of 1850.
Tecumseh - A Shawnee leader of the Eastern American "Indians." He worked to unite all of the tribes into an alliance against the Europeans. He fought on the side of the British against Americans in the War of 1812. He was eventually killed at the Battle of Thames.
Temperance movement - An organized effort to encourage moderation in the consumption of liquors and/or a call for complete abstinence.
Tenure of Office Act - Passed in 1867 by both houses, but vetoed by the President. It was then re-passed in Congress by the necessary two-thirds margin and became law. It said that any official appointed with the advice and consent of the Senate would require similar consent for dismissal Presidential cabinet members were to hold their position for a full term unless removed by the Senate.
Texas Territory - The United States acquired this territory in 1845, but Mexico believed that Texas belonged to them and sent troops in. Mexico lost the ensuing war and relinquished their claim to Texas to the United States.
Thoreau, Henry David - American essayist best known for his work, Walden.
Tilden, Samuel - Born in 1814, Tilden was the Democratic Presidential nominee in 1876. His opponent was the Republican Rutherford B. Hayes. The results from the election were initially confusing. Tilden received the majority of the popular vote, but there were conflicting reports from the electoral colleges from several states. So, Congress set up a commission to decide the winner of the election. There were eight Republicans and seven Democrats on the commission. Tilden lost the election, because the vote was split along party lines. He went on to help establish the New York Public Library.
Tolerant - Accepting of differences in people and things.
Tompkins, Sally Louise - Tompkins ran a hospital that took care of wounded Confederate soldiers in Virginia during the Civil War. Her hospital had the highest survival rate of any in the Confederacy. When Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, issued a proclamation that all hospitals treating wounded soldiers had to be run by military officers, he made Tompkins a Captain of Cavalry. She was the only woman to ever hold a commission in the Confederate army.
Tories - During the American Revolution, the Tories were colonists who maintained allegiance to Britain. They were also called "Loyalists," because they were not rebelling against, but supporting, British authority in America.
Townshend Act - Originated by Charles Townshend and passed by the English Parliament in 1767 shortly after the repeal of the Stamp Act. It was designed to collect revenue from the colonists in America by taxing imports of glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea.
Trail of Tears - In 1838, about 7,000 American troops forced hundreds of Cherokee to leave their homes in Georgia and move to an Indian reservation in Oklahoma. The journey was hard, and many Cherokee suffered or even died. Many shed tears during this forced and harsh journey, which came to be named the "Trail of Tears."
Treaty of Alliance - A 1778 alliance between France and the United States that resulted partially because of the success of American forces in the Battle of Saratoga. France and the United States agreed to aid each other in the event of a British attack.
Treaty of Amity and Commerce - This treaty with Sweden was signed in 1783, by Benjamin Franklin and by Baron Gustaf Philip Creutz. It was basically a treaty of peace and friendship between the United States and Sweden.
Treaty of Guadelupe-Hidalgo - The peace treaty ending the Mexican War gave the United States California, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and parts of Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, and Wyoming in exchange for $15 million and assumption of $3.25 million in debts owed to Americans by Mexico.
Treaty Of Paris - Treaty that officially ended the Revolutionary War on September 3, 1783. Under the treaty, Britain recognized the independence of the United States of America. Britain agreed to remove all of its troops from the United States and it set new borders for the United States, including all land from the Great Lakes on the north to Florida on the south, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. On the other hand, the United States agreed to let British troops still in America to leave and to pay all existing debts owed to Great Britain. The United States also agreed not to persecute loyalists still in America and allow those who left America to return.
Triangular Trade - Triangular Trade was a route set up to receive slaves. Three of its routes formed a triangle. The first route carried fish, lumber, and other goods from New England to the West Indies. In the West Indies, the traders picked up sugar and molasses, a dark brown syrup product made from sugar cane. From the West Indies, merchants carried the molasses-made rum, along with guns, gunpowder, and tools to West Africa. This is where they traded these items for slaves, who were then carried to the West Indies, to be sold.
Truth, Sojourner - A former slave who became a traveling preacher, Truth was an abolitionist and an advocate of women's rights. She was an enigmatic speaker and was very respected.
Tundra - Treeless land that is usually found in arctic and sub-arctic regions.
Tyler, John - Tyler, a Whig and lawyer, was born in Greenway, VA on March 29, 1790. He became President in 1841. His Presidency ended in 1845, the same year that Texas was annexed. He was termed the "Accidental President." He died January 18, 1862 in Richmond, VA.
Uncle Tom's Cabin - Popular story written in 1852 by African-American Harriet Beecher Stowe; its general theme is against slavery.
Underground railroad - A series of "safe houses" that runaway slaves followed while escaping from the slave-holding South to the free North.
Union - Name given to the North and the Northern soldiers during the Civil War.
Valley Forge - Pennsylvania encampment occupied by the American army from December 1777 to June 1778. The winter was particularly harsh, and the army was short on food, clothing, and supplies. However, with the leadership of Commander George Washington and Baron von Steuben, the soldiers survived and this difficult experience made them hardier soldiers.
Van Buren, Martin - This "Little Magician" was born in Kinderhook, NJ in December of 1782. He was a Democrat and a lawyer who was elected 1837. His Presidency was marked by continued conflicts with the Native Americans; particularly, the "Trail of Tears" in 1838. Van Buren's term ran from 1837 through 1841. He died on December 5, 1862.
Vernacular - The everyday common language of a group of people.
Verrazano, Giovanni da - While looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia, Verrazano explored from the coast between North Carolina and Maine. He was an Italian explorer born in 1485 and was killed by Carib in Indians in 1528.
Vespucci, Amerigo - Vespucci was an Italian explorer born in 1454. He was the first explorer to realize that the Americas were a separate continent from Asia. Like many other explorers, he searched for a shorter route from Europe to Asia. America is named after this explorer.
Vicksburg, Battle of - A Mississippi battle that took place between May 18 and July 4 of 1863, which was led by Ulysses S. Grant (Union) and John Pemberton (Confederacy). The Confederate Army tried to protect the city against the Union army, but the Union army was too strong and took the city. This was an important victory for the Union because it split the Confederacy in half.
Warren, Mercy Otis - Writer and personal friend of most of the leaders of the Revolutionary War. Her book History of the American Revolution is valuable because of her first-hand familiarity with many of the key personalities of the war.
Washington, George - The first President of the United States, Washington was born in Westmoreland County, VA on February 22, 1732. He was a farmer before he became a soldier in the American Revolution, where he became commander of the Continental Army in 1775. He became President in 1789. During his tenure, the Judiciary Act was passed, which specified the number of federal courts and judges. The national banking system was also established in 1791, the same year that the Bill of Rights took effect. In 1797, Washington's second term ended and he retired to Mount Vernon, VA, where he died December 14, 1799. He was considered the "Father of Our Country."
Washington, Martha - The wife of American general and president George Washington, she managed his estate in his absence. She often visited him at camp during the American Revolution and helped keep soldier morale up.
Wheatley, Phillis - The first African-American poet.
Whigs – A political party formed during the eighteenth century in England. The Whig Party was an organization of political leaders that opposed political interference from the British monarchy and royally appointed officials in governmental affairs. They viewed themselves as defenders of liberty, which is one reason why many American leaders called themselves Whigs.
Whitman, Walt - American poet known for his book Leaves of Grass.
Wilderness, Battle of - This battle took place in Virginia on May 5-7, 1864. It was a showdown between Ulysses S. Grant's Union army and a Confederate army led by George Meade and Robert E. Lee. This was not a decisive victory for either side, but the Union forces were not repulsed and continued on to Spotsylvania.
Willard, Emma - The first woman to publicly support higher education for women. She established a boarding school for girls where she encouraged hundreds of young women to go to college.
Wright, Frances - Author and founder of the newspaper the Free Inquirer, she advocated the end to slavery, equality in education, and women's rights.
Writ of Habeas corpus - Meaning "to free the body," it is a mandate for inquiring into the lawfulness of the restraint of a person imprisoned or detained in another's custody. It gives a prisoner or arrestee the right to appear before a judge or court to justify his or her arrest or imprisonment.
Writs of assistance - Blanket search warrants used by English customs collectors in the colonies to try to catch suspected smugglers. These writs did not require any form of prior evidence to justify searches, which the colonies viewed as yet another imperial violation of fundamental (English) liberties.
XYZ Affair - A negative diplomatic incident in 1797 and 1798 between France and America. In 1778, the United States had entered into an alliance with France, but after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, it was both unable and unwilling to lend the aid that the French expected.